Research is “creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.” It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm previous results, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may expand past work, develop further knowledge, or—in academic settings—prepare students for future professional roles. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate prior projects. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development (R&D) of methods for advancing human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably within humanities and sciences. Forms of research include scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner, life, and technological studies. The scientific study of research practices is known as metascience.

Definitions of research

One definition by the OECD: “Any creative systematic activity undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this knowledge to devise new applications.” John W. Creswell states that “research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue” — consisting of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer it, and present an answer. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research as “studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws.”

Key characteristics to look for in empirical research

• Statement about the methodology being used.
• Research questions to be answered.
• Definition of the group or phenomena being studied.
• Process used to study this group or phenomena, including controls or instruments such as tests or surveys.
• Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?
• Read the abstract for a description of the methodology.

Interpretive & critical research

Interpretive studies assume that people create and associate their own subjective and intersubjective meanings as they interact with the world. Interpretive researchers attempt to understand phenomena through accessing the meanings participants assign to them (Orlikowski and Baroudi 1991). Critical social research attempts to reveal the socio-historical specificity of knowledge and to shed light on how particular knowledges reproduce structural relations of inequality and oppression (John Muncie).

Hermeneutic research

Hermeneutic research enables interpretations and in-depth understanding of texts, art, culture, social phenomena, and thinking. It focuses primarily on the meaning of qualitative data (especially textual) and aids human understanding, helping qualitative researchers understand what people say and do, and why.

Standards of good research

Commitment to a Theoretical Attitude – aims for objectivity; researcher puts aside personal beliefs. Research should contribute important knowledge to the profession – not trivial. Reflects recognition of guiding interest – serves to provide value. Researcher is knowledgeable about the subject area and related research. Clear understanding of symbol systems and openness to questioning. Conclusions have rational logic supported by evidence. Responds to challenge – defends conclusions. Socially responsible and observes ethical norms regarding subjects, colleagues, and society.

Library and information science (LIS) merges library science and information science. It is associated with schools of library and information science (SLIS). Since the late 1960s, professional training programs evolved into university institutions, and by the 1990s almost all library schools in the USA added “information science” to their names. Similar developments occurred globally. In Pakistan, LIS education has grown significantly, with several universities offering BS, MS, and PhD programs in Library and Information Science. Research output in Pakistan has seen gradual expansion, focusing on areas such as information literacy, digital libraries, bibliometrics, knowledge management, and use of information technology in academic and special libraries.

However, Pakistani LIS research faces challenges: limited funding, lack of advanced research infrastructure, and a relatively small number of full-time research faculty. Despite these, there is an increasing trend of publications in national and international journals, collaborative projects, and conference participation. The Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan has promoted research through scholarships, indigenous PhD programs, and digital library resources. Still, the volume of empirical and theoretical research lags behind global standards. Areas such as information behavior, archival studies, and data curation remain underdeveloped. The LIS community in Pakistan is actively working toward strengthening research culture, with emerging interest in interdisciplinary collaborations with computer science and management sciences.

In global context, LIS is viewed as an interdiscipline drawing from computer science, management, sociology, and communication. Some scholars argue LIS is a discipline in its own right, with its own body of concepts and journals. The scenario in Pakistan reflects these tensions: while LIS departments traditionally focused on librarianship, recent trends emphasize information science, data science, and information management. As Pakistan moves toward digitization and e-governance, LIS research will likely expand to address national information policy, digital equity, and scholarly communication.

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question existing in scholarly literature, theory, or practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In social sciences it is often posed as a question. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague proposition, or present a value question.

Importance of a problem statement

• Introduces the reader to the importance of the topic.
• Places the problem into a particular context defining the parameters.
• Provides framework for reporting results and indicates what is necessary for the study.

The “So What?” question tests relevancy: a good problem statement must have clarity, identification of variables, key concepts, study boundaries, generalizability, and justification.

Types of research problems

Theoretical research problem: theoretical explanation of a problem, exploratory, no need of hypothesis/verification. Provides basic meaning and theory.

Applied research problem: practical use of theoretical knowledge; involves field work, visits to problematic situations; includes hypothesis and verification.

Action research problem: immediate solution required; continuous, sensitive, welfare and service oriented; needs quick decisions in emergency contexts.

Sources of research problems

Research problems typically originate from: personal experience, literature review, theories, social issues, brainstorming, policy debates, technological changes, gaps in existing research, and practical problems encountered in professional settings. In LIS, problems may stem from user information needs, library management inefficiencies, digital divide, or emerging technologies.

A literature review is a scholarly text that includes current knowledge, substantive findings, theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. It is a secondary source, not reporting new experimental work. Literature reviews provide foundation for research in nearly every academic field, situating a study within existing literature and providing context. They may appear in journal articles, theses, dissertations, and research proposals.

Types of literature reviews

• Argumentative Review: Examines literature selectively to support or refute an argument, establishing a contrarian viewpoint.
• Integrative Review: Critiques and synthesizes representative literature to generate new frameworks and perspectives.
• Historical Review: Focuses on examining research throughout a period, tracing evolution of ideas, concepts, or theories.
• Methodological Review: Analyzes how research was conducted (methods, data collection, analysis) rather than just content.
• Systematic Review: Uses pre-specified methods to identify, appraise, and synthesize evidence for a clearly formulated question.
• Theoretical Review: Examines the corpus of theory accumulated about an issue, concept, or phenomenon; reveals gaps or inadequacies.

A well-conducted literature review is essential for research rigor: it informs hypothesis development, guides data collection, and ensures the study contributes meaningful new knowledge. In LIS research, literature reviews often map intellectual structures, bibliometric trends, or emerging technologies’ impact on information services.

A hypothesis is a tentative relationship between two or more variables that directs research activity to test it. It is a testable prediction expected to occur. Hypotheses build logical relationships between phenomena and give direction, focus, and help frame research techniques. For example, in a study on discrimination against women, hypotheses may include: “Higher the illiteracy, higher the discrimination” or “Higher the patriarchy, higher the discrimination.”

Types of hypothesis

• Simple Hypothesis: Reflects relationship between one independent and one dependent variable. (e.g., higher unemployment → higher crime rate).
• Complex Hypothesis: Relationship among more than two variables (e.g., higher poverty and illiteracy lead to higher crime).
• Working Hypothesis: Accepted to put to test and work on; assumed to explain certain facts and relationships.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Formulated to replace working hypothesis if it is rejected; provides alternative explanation.
• Null Hypothesis (H0): Expresses no relationship between variables (e.g., poverty has nothing to do with crime). Researchers aim to reject/nullify it to confirm association.
• Statistical Hypothesis: Can be verified using quantitative techniques and statistical data.
• Logical Hypothesis: Verified through logical reasoning and evidence, though it may also be statistically testable.

Characteristics of a good research hypothesis

A strong hypothesis must be clear and unambiguous, testable with available methods, and grounded in theoretical or empirical background. It should state the expected relationship between variables in measurable terms. It must be falsifiable (able to be proven wrong) and should contribute to knowledge advancement. Additionally, ethical feasibility and relevance to real-world problems strengthen the hypothesis. In LIS research, good hypotheses often link variables such as information literacy training and search efficacy, or digital library usability and user satisfaction.

Formulating a hypothesis transforms a research problem into a focused, investigative direction, guiding sampling, instrumentation, and analysis. Whether simple or complex, the hypothesis remains central to the scientific method in social and information science research.